Plugged In: Compressors
Whether you are just starting to get into recording or live audio, you are undoubtably going to need to use a compressor on almost any project you are a part of. Like any audio signal modifier, you can use a hardware compressor or a plugin version. There are too many models, types etc to cover, so I will only cover the basics of a compressor, and how one works.
A compressor does exactly what it sounds like it does; in its most basic form a compressor compresses or squeezes an audio sound wave so that the distance between the top and the bottom of the wave (or amplitude of the wave) is decreased. In lamens terms, it makes loud things more quiet, and quiet things more loud, resulting in a higher average loudness. The human ear percieves this as being louder, although the actual peak of the sound wave has been lowered. This is how one song on the radio, or a commercial on TV can sound louder than the other, even though you didn’t turn up the volume on your radio or TV.
There are four basic parameters or settings a user adjusts while using all compressors: ratio, threshold, attack time, and release time. Because this has been covered so many times else where, I will reference an article from MIX magazine by Barry Rudolph
Ratio Ratio is a way to express the degree to which the compressor is reducing dynamic range. Ratio indicates the difference between the signal increase coming into the compressor and the increase at the output level. A ratio of 10:1 would mean that it would take an increase of 10 dB coming into the compressor to cause the output to only increase 1 dB. Ratio is a constant value, as it doesn’t matter how much compression is taking place; the ratio of the input change to output change is always the same. Compressors and limiters are really separated only by a loose definition: Generally, compressors have compression ratios up to 8:1, while limiters have ratios higher than 8:1. Most professional compressors have either fixed selectable ratios (such as UREI’s 1176 with presets of 4:1, 8:1, 12:1 and 20:1) or continuous variable ratios (such as the dbx line of professional compressors). Some recent compressor designs instantaneously change ratio depending on the program’s dynamic content and the constraints of the front panel control settings.
Threshold: Threshold is the level of the incoming signal at which the compressor amplifier changes from a unity gain amplifier (like a straight piece of wire, theoretically) into a compressor reducing gain. The compressor has no effect on the signal below the threshold level setting. Once threshold is reached, the compressor starts reducing gain according to the amount the signal exceeds threshold and according to the ratio control setting. Threshold level could be thought of as the “sensitivity” of the compressor and is expressed as a specific level in dB. The exact moment the compressor starts gain reduction is called the “knee.”
“Hard knee” compression describes this moment as sudden and certain. “Soft knee” or smooth knee compression is a less obtrusive change from simple amplifier to compressor. Soft knee widens or broadens the range of threshold values necessary for the onset of compression. On quality compressors you can switch between hard and soft knee compression. The amount of gain reduction is measured and read on a standard VU meter whose needle rests on the 0 VU mark. The needle will deflect negatively downward to indicate how much gain reduction is occurring in dB. VU meters are RMS or average level responding and do not indicate fast or peak gain changes. LEDs are also used for VU meters, and they will better indicate peak levels. A well-designed compressor will have a good meter that reads input level, output level, gain reduction and any excessive peak output with an LED clip indicator. Once the amount of gain reduction is determined, the recording or operating level is readjusted with the output or make-up gain control on the compressor.
Attack: Attack time refers to the time it takes the compressor to start compressing after threshold has been reached. Typical attack times range from less than 1 millisecond at the fastest to more than 100 milliseconds at the slowest. Attack time settings affect the sound quality in terms of overall perceived brightness or high-frequency content. If you use very fast attack time settings, the compressor will activate very quickly, reducing gain instantly at the waveform level of the sound. Since transient information at the front or attack portion conveys brightness character, especially with percussive sounds, immediately reducing it with the compressor will dull the sound. Selecting a slower attack time will allow the transient portion of the sound to pass through before the compressor starts clamping. However, if the attack time is too slow, ineffective and tardy compressor action may result.
If you compress a snare drum track with a fast attack, you may notice a diminished or shortened attack of the front portion of the snare drum sound. Instead of a good “hit” at the beginning, you will hear a very short “blip.” If the attack time were even faster, you wouldn’t hear any snare attack at all. Adjusting the attack control to a slightly slower attack time will lengthen this blip back to the original snare attack length. Engineers use a compressor to get more attack out of a snare drum by using a low threshold and a high ratio. After making up gain with the output level control of the compressor, the attack portion ends up greatly amplified just before the compressor starts squashing the trailing portion of the snare drum sound. I like to mix this “twacked” sound with the original un-processed snare drum track.
Release: Release time is the time the compressor uses to return to unity gain after the input signal has fallen below threshold. The compressor is said to “release” from gain reduction. Typical release times on popular compressors go from as fast as 20 milliseconds to over 5 seconds. Most engineers envision their compressors doing their job of gain reduction quickly and then releasing quickly to get out of the way. For the most part this holds up for pop recordings, but super fast release times, along with a fast attack time setting, will distort low-frequency sounds, as the compressor is capable of gain change within the period of the sound’s waveform. You can demonstrate this by using a very fast release on a bass guitar compressor and have the player play loud and sustained notes. Over-long release time settings are another form of distortion, since gain reduction is “stuck” clamping the sound down for an unnaturally long time. “Pumping” and “breathing” are engineer jargon words for obvious compressor artifacts or side effects with maximum compression. Sudden and usually unwanted deep gain reduction is called pumping, while a slower return (release) to operating level with a noticeable rise of the noise floor is called breathing. Newer compressor designs have clever predictive and adaptive schemes that reduce these side effects, making the compressor’s action nearly undetectable or at least tolerable in most intense gain reduction situations.
There you have it! I quick look at what compressors are and what their most basic functions are. Because compressors can be used on pretty much any recorded audio signal, at an infinite number of settings, I will skip basic actual settings and offer up some good links I have found.